ABO blood type incompatibility causing hemolysis and transfusion reactions is an example of a Type II hypersensitivity reaction. The recipient's blood antibodies bind to the antigens on the surface of the donor's red blood cells, causing the red blood cells to rupture and lyse.
第三型過敏反應(免疫複合體介導的過敏反應)
Type III Hypersensitivity (Immune Complex-Mediated Hypersensitivity)
1.主要由抗原與抗體在血管內形成免疫複合體,並激活補體系統而引起血管壁損傷和炎症反應。
Caused by the formation of immune complexes in the blood vessels when antigens bind to antibodies, activating the complement system and leading to vascular damage and inflammation.
2.常見症狀包括:血管炎、腎炎、狼瘡等
Common symptoms include: Vasculitis, nephritis, and lupus.
3.例如阿圖斯氏反應(Arthus reaction)
Arthus reactions are an example of a Type III hypersensitivity reaction.
Type III hypersensitivity reactions cause glomerulonephritis by the deposition of antigen-antibody complexes in vessel walls or tissues, leading to complement activation and local inflammation. While type III hypersensitivity is one mechanism, acute glomerulonephritis can also result from other immune mechanisms, infections, or vasculitis. Both nephrotic syndrome and acute glomerulonephritis are characterized by damage to the glomeruli, the filtering units of the kidney. This damage results in proteinuria due to impaired glomerular filtration, leading to hypoalbuminemia. Hypoalbuminemia, in turn, causes decreased plasma oncotic pressure, resulting in edema as fluid shifts from the intravascular to the interstitial space.
Type IV hypersensitivity, also known as delayed-type hypersensitivity, is a cell-mediated allergic reaction primarily caused by T cells. When T cells encounter a specific antigen, they release inflammatory mediators, leading to a local inflammatory response.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a bacterium that causes tuberculosis, primarily infecting the lungs but can also infect other organs such as the intestines. Tuberculin is a protein extracted from Mycobacterium tuberculosis and is used in the tuberculin skin test.
When a person is infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the T cells in the immune system mount an immune response against these bacteria. These T cells will "remember" the antigens of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
The tuberculin skin test utilizes this principle. When tuberculin is injected into the skin, if the subject has previously been infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the memory T cells in the body will react to the tuberculin, causing local skin redness and induration (contact dermatitis), which is known as the "tuberculin reaction".
病理學
耳鼻喉相關
嬰幼兒呼吸系統的解剖生理特徵及其相關疾病 Anatomical and Physiological Characteristics of the Infant Respiratory System and Related Diseases
嬰幼兒的呼吸系統與成人相比,具有獨特的解剖生理特徵,這使得他們更容易受到呼吸道疾病的侵襲。
The respiratory system of infants has unique anatomical and physiological characteristics compared to adults, making them more susceptible to respiratory diseases.
Firstly, infants have a higher basal metabolic rate and greater oxygen demand, resulting in a faster respiratory rate. However, due to incomplete lung development and a smaller number of alveoli, their lung function is relatively weak. Additionally, infants have shorter and softer airways, with higher bifurcation points, which are prone to collapse. Once foreign bodies or secretions enter the airways, they can easily cause obstruction and lead to aspiration pneumonia.
Furthermore, the Eustachian tube in infants differs from that of adults. Infants have a shorter, wider, and more horizontal Eustachian tube, making it easier for bacteria and viruses from the nasopharynx to enter the middle ear through the Eustachian tube, resulting in otitis media.
In terms of breathing pattern, infants primarily rely on diaphragmatic breathing. As they grow older, costal breathing gradually develops. This difference in breathing pattern is another characteristic of the infant respiratory system.
Aspiration pneumonia is one of the most common respiratory diseases in infants. Due to narrow airways, incomplete development of the swallowing reflex, and weaker immunity, infants are more susceptible to aspiration pneumonia. When foreign bodies, secretions, or gastric contents are aspirated into the airways, it can cause lung inflammation and subsequently lead to a series of symptoms.
In addition to aspiration pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is another serious lung disease that can occur in both infants and adults. The pathophysiology of ARDS is complex, and one common cause is lung inflammation. Factors such as aspiration pneumonia, infection, and trauma can trigger ARDS, leading to alveolar damage and impaired gas exchange.
過敏性鼻炎
過敏性鼻炎病史的患者,因為反覆鼻炎造成鼻黏膜「灰白色葡萄狀」增生。
Patients with a history of allergic rhinitis may develop "gray-white grape-like" hyperplasia of the nasal mucosa due to repeated rhinitis.
Fexofenadine is a selective H1 receptor antagonist, which is a type of antihistamine used to treat allergic rhinitis, urticaria, and chronic atopic dermatitis. It is less likely to cause sedation or drowsiness because it has a large molecular weight (585.6), making it difficult to cross the blood-brain barrier (molecular weight needs to be less than 400), and it is also positively charged and has low lipophilicity.
肝臟相關
關於肝硬化(liver cirrhosis)
肝硬化是一種嚴重的慢性肝病,肝臟組織受到持續損傷後,會產生疤痕組織,導致肝臟功能減退,導致肝衰竭。
Cirrhosis is a severe chronic liver disease. When the liver is continuously damaged, scar tissue forms, leading to impaired liver function and eventually liver failure.
肝硬化的常見原因
病毒性肝炎: B型肝炎、C型肝炎等病毒感染是常見原因。
酒精性肝病: 長期大量飲酒可導致肝臟損傷。
非酒精性脂肪性肝病 (NAFLD): 與肥胖、代謝症候群相關,會導致肝臟細胞脂肪沉積。
Common Causes of Cirrhosis
Viral hepatitis: Infections with hepatitis B and C viruses are common causes.
Alcoholic liver disease: Long-term heavy drinking can damage the liver.
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): Associated with obesity and metabolic syndrome, leading to fat accumulation in liver cells.
肝硬化(肝衰竭)的併發症
Complications of Cirrhosis (Liver Failure)
腹水: 肝臟功能下降導致腹腔積水,腹部腫脹。
Ascites: Fluid accumulation in the abdominal cavity due to decreased liver function, causing abdominal swelling.
下肢水腫: 血液循環不佳,導致下肢積水。
Lower extremity edema: Poor blood circulation leads to fluid accumulation in the lower extremities.
The test values for liver cirrhosis may show the following abnormalities:
ALT (alanine aminotransferase) is a marker of liver cell damage: liver cell damage is likely to be high, for example: 80 U/L > normal 0-40 U/L
Ammonia is a toxic waste product that is normally metabolized by the liver: due to liver failure due to cirrhosis, inability to metabolize efficiently is likely to be high, for example: ammonia120 mg/dL > normal 15-45 mg/dL
影像學檢查: 超音波、電腦斷層等檢查評估肝臟狀況。
肝臟穿刺活體檢查: 確診肝硬化並評估病變程度。
肝硬化的治療
藥物治療: 利尿劑、白蛋白、β-阻斷劑等,用於控制腹水、降低門靜脈壓等。
另外在肝硬化失代補償期,患者的 Albumin 水平往往會下降。給予 Albumin 補充可以幫助維持血漿膠體滲透壓,減少腹水形成。
In addition, during the decompensatory phase of cirrhosis, patients' Albumin levels tend to decrease. Albumin supplementation can help maintain plasma colloid osmotic pressure and reduce ascites formation.
但是,在給予 Albumin 補充之前,應先處理水和鈉儲留的問題,以免加重腹水。
However, water and sodium retention should be addressed before giving Albumin supplements to avoid worsening ascites.
Ammonia in the body can utilize disaccharides such as Lactulose, which cannot be absorbed by the body but can be broken down into lactic acid and acetic acid by bacteria in the intestine.
這些有機酸可以降低腸道的 pH 值,抑制腸道內細菌的繁殖,從而減少細菌分解蛋白質所產生的大量氨。
These organic acids can lower the pH of the intestines and inhibit the growth of bacteria in the intestines, thereby reducing the large amounts of ammonia produced by bacteria breaking down proteins.
The capsule is a polysaccharide or protein structure located outside the bacterial cell wall. It is extremely important for helping bacteria resist the phagocytosis of immune cells.
Phagocytes (such as macrophages and neutrophils) engulf and digest foreign particles, including bacteria. The capsule can prevent the attachment of phagocytes, make bacteria smooth, and inhibit the production of bactericidal substances by phagocytes, such as reactive oxygen species and lysosomal enzymes.
Endotoxin, primarily composed of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), is a major component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. When bacteria die or lyse, LPS is released and enters the host. LPS can strongly stimulate the host's innate immune system, inducing immune cells such as macrophages to release large amounts of cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) and interleukin-1 (IL-1). These cytokines can cause fever, vasodilation, hypotension, and a series of inflammatory responses, and even lead to septic shock. In addition, LPS can activate the complement system, further amplifying the inflammatory response.
Dermatophytes are a group of fungi that cause infections of the skin, hair, and nails. Common genera of dermatophytes include Epidermophyton, Trichophyton, and Microsporum. Although Trichosporon is often mentioned, it strictly belongs to the order Tremellales in the Basidiomycota, not the dermatophytes. Dermatophyte infections primarily cause skin itching, redness, and scaling,
Streptococcus pneumoniae refers to the same bacteria as pneumococcus. They are both common pathogens that cause bacterial pneumonia.
細菌性肺炎的傳染性相對較低,通常是透過飛沫傳染,但並非所有患者都需要嚴格的呼吸道隔離。
另外若於聽診出現哮鳴音(stridor)通常與氣道狹窄有關,例如氣喘或喉炎,而非肺炎的典型表現。
Bacterial pneumonia is relatively less contagious and is usually transmitted through respiratory droplets, but strict respiratory isolation is not necessary for all patients. Additionally, the presence of stridor on auscultation is typically associated with airway narrowing, such as asthma or laryngitis, and is not a typical presentation of pneumonia.
細菌性肺炎常見症狀
Common symptoms of bacterial pneumonia include:
高燒: 患者通常會出現高燒,是細菌感染的典型表現,體溫正常或輕微上升的情況較少見。
High fever: Patients typically present with high fever, a hallmark of bacterial infection. Normal or slightly elevated temperature is less common.
Cough: Cough is the most common symptom of pneumonia, often accompanied by copious, thick sputum that may be yellow-green or blood-tinged. This is due to the inflammatory response in the lungs caused by bacterial infection.
呼吸困難: 患者會感到呼吸急促、胸悶等不適。
Difficulty breathing: Patients may experience shortness of breath, chest tightness, or other discomforts.
全身倦怠: 患者會感到疲倦、乏力、食慾不振。
General malaise: Patients may feel fatigued, weak, and have a loss of appetite.
痰液: 痰液通常量多且黏稠,顏色可能為黃綠色或帶血絲,這是由於細菌感染導致肺部產生炎症反應所致。
Sputum: Sputum is usually copious and thick, and may be yellow-green or blood-tinged due to the inflammatory response in the lungs caused by bacterial infection.
Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is a lung infection that is acquired outside of a hospital setting. The most common cause of CAP is Streptococcus pneumoniae, a bacterium.
社區性肺炎的常見症狀包括:發燒、咳嗽、咳痰、胸痛、呼吸困難。
Common symptoms of CAP include:Fever,Cough,Sputum production,Chest pain,Shortness of breath.
Atrophy of cardiomyocytes leads to decreased metabolic activity, and waste products in the cell cannot be cleared in time, which will accumulate in the cell, including lipofuscin. Lipofuscin is a brown-yellow pigment that is left over after lysosomes break down intracellular substances. It is a sign of cell aging and damage.
Lipofuscin accumulation is a sign of aging, and is also known as lipofuscin or age pigment. It is a residue formed from substances that can no longer be digested by lysosomes. It is composed mainly of fat, protein, and carbohydrates, and is deposited in a brown-yellow color around the nucleus. It usually begins to appear after the age of 40. Its deposition in cardiac muscle cells is associated with dysfunction and damage to cardiac muscle cells, and may lead to decreased myocardial contractility, arrhythmia, and heart rhythm disturbances. In severe cases, it can lead to heart failure.
Atrophic cardiac muscle cells are more likely to accumulate lipofuscin because they have decreased function, metabolic capacity, lysosomal function, and increased membrane permeability. Lipofuscin accumulation will further aggravate the dysfunction of cardiac muscle cells and lead to the death of cardiac muscle cells.
藥理學/Pharmacology/薬理学/약리학
藥物相關/Drug-Related/薬物関連/약물 관련
抗生素/Antibiotics/抗生物質/항생제
糖肽類抗生素-多個糖基肽單位組成,結構複雜,抑制細菌細胞壁的合成起作用 Glycopeptide Antibiotics - Composed of multiple glycopeptide units, complex structure, and inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis. 糖肽系抗生物質 - 複数の糖肽ユニットで構成され、構造が複雑で、細菌細胞壁の合成を抑制します。
글리코펩티드계 항생제-다수의 글리코펩티드 단위로 구성되어 있으며, 구조가 복잡하고 세균 세포벽 합성을 억제합니다
萬古黴素(Vancomycin)/バンコマイシン/반코마이신:
1.廣譜抗生素,對革蘭氏陽性菌具有強效殺菌作用。
Broad-spectrum antibiotic, effective against Gram-positive bacteria
병원 내 감염의 원인이 되는 황색포도상구균 (Staphylococcus aureus) 치료에 가장 효과적인 항생제 중 하나입니다.
大環內酯類抗生素-一個大環內酯核和兩個糖基組成,結構相對簡單,抑制細菌蛋白質的合成起作用。
Macrolide Antibiotics - Composed of a macrolide nucleus and two sugar groups, relatively simple structure, and inhibit bacterial protein synthesis. 대환내성계 항생제-한 개의 대환내성핵과 두 개의 당기로 구성되어 있으며, 구조가 비교적 단순하고 세균 단백질 합성을 억제합니다.
Patients with chronic gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) may develop regional columnar epithelium in the lower third of the esophagus, a condition known as metaplasia. Additionally, studies have shown that chronic GERD can lead to chronic erosion of esophageal epithelial cells by gastric acid, which can lead to cell damage, abnormal proliferation, and carcinogenesis, eventually leading to esophageal adenocarcinoma.
Nitrites are a chemical found in many foods, such as cured meats, sausages, and ham. Nitrites can react with gastric acid to form nitrosamines, which are carcinogenic. However, studies have shown that the association between nitrites and esophageal adenocarcinoma is relatively weak, and only long-term, high-level exposure to nitrites increases the risk of esophageal adenocarcinoma.
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