What Is Language?
即使是最簡單的對話行為，也仰賴著說話者深厚的語言知識儲備，而這往往是說話者所不自知的。
Even the simplest act of conversation relies on a speaker's extensive linguistic knowledge, often unconsciously.
從文法到用詞，還有各種社會文化背景，涉及了廣泛的語言學知識，包括語法、語義、語用學等。
From grammar to word choice, and encompassing various sociocultural contexts, this involves a wide range of linguistic knowledge, including syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.
Linguistic knowledge includes the following points.
sound system | words | Sentences And Nonsentences | meaning | |
phonology音韻學 | phonetics語音學 | Morphology 詞彙學 | syntax句法學 | Semantics 語意學 |
Knowledge of the sound system (phonology音韻學 and phonetics語音學)
語言的聲音系統，就好比是它的DNA，決定了它的獨特之處。學習一門語言，就等於學習它的聲音拼圖。
A language's sound system is like its DNA, determining its unique characteristics. Learning a language is like learning the pieces of its sound puzzle.
音韻學研究的是語言中聲音的組合規則，也就是說，哪些聲音可以放在一起構成一個詞，哪些組合是違背該語言的規則的。
Phonology studies the combination rules of sounds in a language, that is, which sounds can be put together to form a word and which combinations violate the rules of that language.
語音學則更關注聲音本身的物理特性，例如發音時氣流的流動方式、聲帶的振動等。
Phonetics, on the other hand, focuses on the physical properties of sounds themselves, such as the airflow during pronunciation and the vibration of the vocal cords.
換句話說，音韻學告訴我們語言的「文法規則」，而語音學則告訴我們如何正確發出這些聲音。
In other words, phonology tells us the "grammatical rules" of a language, while phonetics tells us how to produce these sounds correctly.
我們需要了解哪些聲音能構成這個語言，哪些不能。更重要的是，我們要了解這些聲音在一個單字裡如何排列組合，才能說出一句正確的話。
掌握了一門語言的音韻系統，就如同掌握了拼字遊戲的規則，我們才能正確地拼出一個個的單字，並流暢地表達自己的想法。
We need to understand which sounds can make up this language and which cannot. More importantly, we need to understand how these sounds are arranged in a word to say a correct sentence.
Mastering the phonological system of a language is like mastering the rules of a spelling game. We can correctly spell words and express our thoughts fluently.
Knowledge of words(morphology詞彙學)
詞彙與聲音的任意關係
The Arbitrary Relationship Between Words and Sounds
語言的獨特性：每種語言的聲音與其代表的意義之間的關係是隨意的，沒有必然的聯繫。也就是說，同一個聲音在不同的語言中可能代表完全不同的意思。
The Uniqueness of Language: The relationship between the sounds of a language and the meanings they represent is arbitrary. There is no inherent connection between the two. The same sound can represent completely different meanings in different languages.
手語的獨特性：手語也是如此，手勢與其所代表的概念之間的關係也是約定俗成的。
The Uniqueness of Sign Language: Sign languages follow the same principle. The gestures used in sign language and the concepts they represent are also arbitrarily assigned.
擬聲詞的例外： 擬聲詞是一種例外，它們的發音模仿了所代表的事物或動作的聲音，因此具有一定的象徵意義。
The Exception of Onomatopoeia: Onomatopoeia is an exception. These words imitate the sounds they represent, giving them a degree of symbolic meaning.
詞彙的創造性The Creativity of Vocabulary
無限的可能性： 一種語言中可能的句子數量是無限的，字典無法收錄所有可能的句子。
Infinite Possibilities: The number of possible sentences in a language is infinite. No dictionary can contain all possible sentences.
語言的創造性： 我們可以不斷創造新的句子，這展現了語言的創造性。
The Creativity of Language: We can constantly create new sentences, demonstrating the creativity of language.
非自願發聲的文化差異： 即使是非自願的發聲，如疼痛的喊叫，也會受到語言文化的影響。
Cultural Differences in Involuntary Vocalizations: Even involuntary vocalizations, such as cries of pain, are influenced by language and culture.
3 Knowledge Of Sentences And Nonsentences(syntax句法學)
language not only allows us to produce and understand an infinite(無限) number of well-formed sentences. It also permits(允許) to distinguish(區分) formed of right or not.
中文釋義：語言不只允許我們產生或了解無限量的合乎文法句子；也允許我們去區別出合乎文法或不合乎文法的句子。
Grammatical sentences:
John kissed the little old lady who owned the shaggy dog.
John is difficult to love.
It is difficult to love John.
John is anxious to go.
John, who was a student, flunked his exams.
Ungrammatical sentences:
Who owned the shaggy dog John kissed the little old lady.
It is anxious to go John.
Exams his flunked student a was who John.
4 Knowledge of the meaning – semantics(semantics語意學→meaning of sentence)
Linguistic knowledge and Performance
1 Linguistic competence → the linguistic knowledge of the language
2 Linguistic Performance: the actual use of the language.
Ex: high affective filter: emotion, nervous.(很容易緊張自我設限)
2.1 Lexicon ←→ mental dictionary =>; all the words used in a language.
2.2 Grammar in a broader sense. (廣義上的語法)
What Is Grammar?
It focuses on the actual use of the speakers of a language.
Ex:
I am taller than he (傳統性文法prescriptive grammar)
I am taller than him(敘述性文法 descriptive = standard)
| 1. Descriptive Grammars |
2 Morphology(詞彙學=單字): Rules of word formation.
3 Syntax(語法): Rules for combining words into phrases and phrases into sentences.
4 Semantics(語意學=句子): As well as the rules for assigning(
指定) meaning.
5 Lexicon(詞彙): The grammar, together with a ‘mental dictionary’.
| 2. Prescriptive Grammars |
Linguistically, prestige and standard dialects do not have superior grammars.
Writing is not acquired naturally though simple exposures to other speaking the languages are, but must be taught.
中文：寫作不是一個自然可以習得的，須要透過教導。
| 3. General Grammar=>Universal Grammar (UG): |
The nature of language in general and promoted(推崇) the idea of general grammar as distinct(不同) from special grammar.
Noam Chomsky’s view: that UG is part of biologically(生物) endowed(得天獨厚) human language faculty. A major aim of linguistic theory is to discover the nature of UG.
普遍性語法:語言學的一個理論概念，所有語言的共通法，語言的架構 innate+talent(天生的)
| 4. Sign Languages |
This universality is expected(預期) because, regardless of the modality in which it is expressed, language is a biologically based ability.
簡而言之，手語在主要的方向與口語是相類似的，不管它以何形式被展現，語言是一個生物學上的基本能力。
| What Is Not (Human) Language |
沒有創造性(creativity=discreteness)和代替性(displacement)這2種特性不能被稱為語言。
| Language and thought(語言和思想) |
1 Linguistic determinism 語言決定論(strongest)
because it holds that the language we speak determines how we perceive and think about the world.[L.D.]
人的思想由他的語言所決定→語言跟思想之間的關聯。
2 Linguistic relativism語言相對論(weaker)
it says that different language encode different categories and that speakers of different languages therefore think about the world in different ways.[L.Y.]
你所學的語言會影響你看世界的角度，但不是決定的。
But the Sapir-Whorf strong hypothesis is wrong.
People’s thoughts and perceptions(觀念) are not determined by the words and structures of their language.
We are not prisoners(囚犯) of our linguistic systems.
※Politicians(政治家) and marketers certainly(肯定) believe that language can influence(影響) our thoughts and values.
※The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis holds that the particular language we speak determines or influences our thought and perceptions(認識) of the world.
| Chapter 2 Morphology: The Words Of Language |
| Content Words and Function Words |
1 Content words:
nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs(副詞) sometimes called the open class words. Because we can and regularly(經常) do add new words to these classes.
2 Function words:
conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns sometimes called the closed class words. Because they specify grammatical relations and have little or no semantic content.
連接詞，介詞，冠詞，代詞有時也被稱為封閉類的字。因為他們指定的語法關係，並只有些微的或語義解釋。
| Morphemes |
2 Cannot be further analyzed. (不可再分解)
Bound and Free Morphemes:
[Free] knowledge of the individual(個別) Morphemes.
[bound]knowledge of the rules that combine them.(需合併)
| Affixes:綴詞 |
Prefixes: regain (in the beginning).放在字首
"unhappy" consists of the prefix "un-"
Suffixes: acceptable (in the end). 放在字尾
looking 吃了 詞幹-後綴 出現在詞幹之後
Infixes: in (at) the middle. 放在字中
＂saxomaphone＂意指吃過飯；詞<中綴>幹；通常出現在詞幹之中，常見於婆羅洲-菲律賓語系或南島語系裡。
Circumfixes: in cat the beginning and end.可放在字首或字尾
ascattered 環綴＋詞幹＋環綴 一部分出現在詞幹前，另一部分出現在詞幹後
| Roots and stems |
Easy→root (字根):free morpheme.單一字根有意義。
Uneasy → prefix + stem (字幹)
就像角色扮演，不一樣的位置名稱跟著改變。
Uneasily → stem + suffix
EX:
System → root
systematic → stem(system) + suffix(atic)
unsystematic → prefix(un) + stem(systematic)
Bound Roots (沒辦法自己存在)
| Derivational Morphology (Bound Morphology) |
Bound morphemes add a new word with a new meaning.
(改變了詞性，衍生出另一個字和字義發音可能會有變化)
就拿冬眠這個字來說：
Hibernate 是個動詞，表示「冬眠」的動作。
Hibernation 是個名詞，表示「冬眠」的狀態。
Hibernating 是個動詞的現在分詞，表示「正在冬眠」的進行狀態。
它們都有共同的詞根 "hibern-"，代表「冬眠」。
透過添加不同的詞綴（morpheme），改變了詞性，衍生出不同的詞義。
這就完美地展現了 bound morphemes 的特性，也就是必須依附在其他詞根上，才能形成有意義的詞。
| Inflectional Morphology(八大詞類) |
| Zero-form Morphology(沒有變化的詞彙) |
A morphology that doesn’t change the word either in spelling or pronciation.
並不能改變這個詞無論是在拼寫或發音。
Ex: hit, hit, hit.(發音沒有變化)
sit, set, set.(拼音沒有變化)
n.（不會變化單複數的名詞）: sheep, fish, deer, salmon, offspring, species.
Child → children
Foot → feet
ring, rang, rung.
| Making compounds plural(複合名詞複數) |
Is not always simply adding –s as in girlfriends or sheepdogs.
Ex: for many speakers the plural of mother-in-law is mothers-in-law, whereas the possessive form is mother-in-law’s.
| Lexical gaps(沒有這樣使用，文法上正確) |
People who live in the streams and lakes can’t control their bodies.(文法正確但沒人如此使用)
EX: Disobvious → 看起來像個字但它是錯的。
| Word Coinage造字方法 |
Coin a word
Invent a word
Make up a word
1.Back-Formation(回朔)
2.Compound
3.Acronym(縮寫)
Back-Formation
Back-Formation are words created by misinterpreting an affix look-alike such as -er as an actual affix,
so, for example, the verb peddle was formed under the mistaken assumption that peddler was peddle+ -er.
1.peddler->peddle
2.sightseeing->sightsee
3.stoker->stoke
4.editor->edit
Compound Word
複合字的字，由第二個組成的詞性決定。(重音第一個；詞性第二個)
When the two words are in the same grammatical category,the compound will also be in this category:noun+noun=noun
Girl(名詞)+Friend(名詞)=名詞
Fighter(名詞)+bomber(名詞)=名詞
Home(名詞)+work(名詞)=名詞
Paper(名詞)+Clip(名詞)=名詞
Elevator(名詞)+Operator(名詞)=名詞
Land(名詞)+Lord(名詞)=名詞
Mail(名詞)+Man(名詞)=名詞
Adjective+Adjective=Adjective
Bitter(形容詞)+Sweet(形容詞)=形容詞
Icy(形容詞)+Cold(形容詞)=形容詞
Red(形容詞)+Hot(形容詞)=形容詞
Worldly(形容詞)+Wise(形容詞)=形容詞
In English, the rightmost word in a compound is the head of the compound.
The head is the part of a word or phrase that determines the grammatical category of the compound:
noun+adjective=Adjective
Head(名詞)+Strong(形容詞)=形容詞
Poor(形容詞)+House(名詞)=名詞
White(形容詞)+Wash(動詞)=動詞
The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts;
a blackboard may be green or white.
Not everyone who wears a red coat is a Redcoat(英軍)。
Other compounds reveal other meaning relations between the parts,
which are not entirely consistent because many compounds are idiomatic(狸語).
A boathouse is a house for boats, but a cathouse is not a house for cats.
(It is slang for a house of prostitution or whorehouse.)
A jumping bean is a bean that jumps, a falling star is a star that(appears to) fall, and a magnifying glass is a glass that magnifies; but a looking glass is not a glass that looks, nor is an eating apple an apple that eats, and laughing gas does not laugh.
In the examples so far, the meaning of each compound includes at least to some extent the meanings of the individual parts.
However, many compounds nowadays do not seem to relate to the meanings of the individual parts at all.
A jack-in-a-box is a tropical tree, and a turncodt is a traitor.
A highbrow does not necessarily have a high brow, nor does a bigwig have a big wig, nor does an egghead have an egg-shaoed head.
| 樹狀圖-Tree Diagrams |
| 判斷斜體的字 |
1.terroriz"ed"=inflectional(八大詞類) suffix(字尾)
2.un"civil"ized=Free Root (可單獨存在的字根)
3.terror"ize"=Derivational(非八大：改變詞性) suffix
4."luke"warm=Bound root(不可單獨存在的字根)
5."im"possible=derivational prefix
6.noisy crow=phrase consisting of adjective plus noun
7.scarecrow=compound noun
8.the crow=grammatical morpheme followed by lexical(語詞的) morpheme
9.crowlike=root morpheme plus derivational suffix
10.crows=root morpheme plus inflectional affix
deactivation=de+act+active+activate+activation
replaces=re+place+s
retroactive=re+tro+active
befriended=be+friend+ed
televise=tele+vise
margin=margin
endearment=en+dear+ment
psychology=psych+ology
unpalatable=un+palat+able
holiday=holi+day
grandmother=grand+mother
morphemic=morphe+mic
mistreatment=mis+treat+ment
saltpeter=salt+peter
airsickness=air+sick+ness
bureaucrat=bure+au+crat
democrat=demo+crat
airstocrat=aristo+crat
plutocrat=pluto+crat
democracy=demo+crat+cracy
democratic=demo+crat+cratic
democratically=demo+crat+crati+cally
democratization=demo+crat+cratiza+tion
democratize=demo+crat+crati+ze
democratizer=demo+crat+cratiz+cratizer
democratizing=demo+crat+cratiz+ing
democratized=demo+crat+cratiz+ed
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