交感神經/sympathetic nervous system
交感神經的作用functions of the sympathetic nervous system
交感神經在人體中扮演著重要的角色，當人體感受到壓力或危險時，交感神經會啟動相關的生理功能，這包括心跳加速、血壓上升、呼吸變快、體溫增高、腸胃蠕動減少、汗液分泌增加、支氣管舒張、瞳孔放射肌的收縮（瞳孔放大）、引起腎上腺釋放正腎上腺素（norepinephrine）、肝醣（glycogen）轉換成葡萄糖的速率增加，以使身體處於警覺且專注的狀態，以應對各種挑戰。
The sympathetic nervous system is a part of the autonomic nervous system that is responsible for the body's "fight or flight" response. When the body senses danger or stress, the sympathetic nervous system activates a number of physiological changes, including:
Increased heart rate,Elevated blood pressure,Accelerated breathing,Higher body temperature,Reduced gastrointestinal motility,Increased sweat secretion,Dilation of the bronchial tubes:,Contraction of the radial muscles of the pupils (pupillary dilation),The sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the adrenal glands to release epinephrine (adrenaline), which increases the rate of glycogen breakdown to glucose.These changes help the body to prepare for a physical challenge, such as running away from a predator or fighting off an attacker.
epinephrine（腎上腺素）最常用於緊急治療過敏性休克（anaphylactic shock），可以幫助緩解過敏性休克的症狀。它可以幫助打開呼吸道、降低血壓並減少腫脹。
Epinephrine (adrenaline) is most commonly used to treat anaphylactic shock, a severe allergic reaction that can be life-threatening. It can help relieve the symptoms of anaphylactic shock by opening the airways, lowering blood pressure, and reducing swelling.
大內臟神經（Greater Splanchnic Nerve）
大內臟神經是交感神經中的一支分支，其節前神經纖維來自胸段脊髓，含有源於T5~T9之交感節前神經纖維。這些神經纖維會終至腔神經節、上腸繫膜神經節、腎神經節以及腎上腺髓質。
The greater splanchnic nerve is a branch of the sympathetic nervous system, with its preganglionic fibers originating from the thoracic spinal cord, including sympathetic preganglionic fibers from T5 to T9. These nerve fibers terminate at the celiac ganglia, superior mesenteric ganglia, renal ganglia, and adrenal medulla.
常見的雞皮疙瘩與豎毛肌
The common "goosebumps" or "chicken skin" phenomenon is related to the arrector pili muscles.
常見的雞皮疙瘩是由豎毛肌（arrector pili）所引起的，這種肌肉屬於平滑肌，受到自律神經的控制。在交感神經亢奮的情況下，豎毛肌會收縮，進行毛髮收縮運動（pilomotor contraction）。
The common phenomenon of "goosebumps" is caused by the contraction of the arrector pili muscles, which are a type of smooth muscle controlled by the autonomic nervous system. When the sympathetic nervous system is activated, the arrector pili muscles contract, leading to hair follicle contraction.
骨盆交感神經（Pelvic Sympathetic Nerves）
骨盆交感神經是自主神經系統的一部分，主要調節骨盆內部器官的功能，其中包括生殖器官、泌尿系統以及消化系統。這些神經參與控制著血管的收縮、消化器官的運動、生殖器官的性刺激以及排尿等重要的生理過程。它們的調節使得這些系統能夠正常運作，維持身體的平衡和功能。
The pelvic sympathetic nerves are a part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for regulating the functions of internal pelvic organs, including the reproductive, urinary, and digestive systems. These nerves are involved in controlling processes such as vasoconstriction, movement of the digestive organs, sexual stimulation of reproductive organs, and urination. Their regulation ensures the proper functioning of these systems, maintaining the balance and functionality of the body.
在排尿過程中，交感神經的活動會引起尿道括約肌的收縮，從而阻止尿液的流出。這有助於保持尿液在膀胱內，直到適當的時機排空。
During the process of urination, the activity of the sympathetic nervous system leads to the contraction of the urethral sphincter, thereby preventing the flow of urine. This helps maintain urine within the bladder until an appropriate time for emptying.
副交感神經Parasympathetic nervous system
副交感神經是負責讓人體鬆弛休息、保存體力、促進消化、睡眠啟動等。
The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for inducing relaxation, conserving energy, promoting digestion, initiating sleep, and similar functions in the human body.
當副交感神經受到刺激時，會釋放乙醯膽鹼，此神經傳導物質會作用於目標器官上的蕈毒鹼型乙醯膽鹼受體。這種作用會引發一系列生理反應，包括心跳減慢、血壓下降、瞳孔縮小（由於瞳孔括約肌收縮）、腸胃蠕動增加、唾液分泌增多以及膀胱括約肌收縮。這些反應共同顯示了副交感神經在維持身體休息和消化功能中的重要角色。
When the parasympathetic nervous system is stimulated, it releases acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that binds to muscarinic acetylcholine receptors on target organs. This interaction triggers a cascade of physiological responses, including decreased heart rate, reduced blood pressure, miosis (pupillary constriction due to contraction of the iris sphincter muscle), increased gastrointestinal motility, enhanced salivation, and contraction of the urinary bladder detrusor muscle. Collectively, these responses highlight the pivotal role of the parasympathetic nervous system in promoting rest and digestion.
骨盆內臟神經（Pelvic Visceral Nerves）
骨盆內臟神經的神經網絡，涵蓋了骨盆內部的多個器官，包括泌尿系統、生殖系統和消化系統。這些神經提供對骨盆內臟器官（如膀胱、子宮、直腸等）的感覺和運動功能。它們參與控制內臟的運動、排尿、排便、生殖等生理過程。
骨盆內臟神經是由副交感神經纖維組成，排尿機制運用於副交感神經活耀導致骨盆內臟神經興奮，導致膀胱逼尿肌收縮(平滑肌收縮)，尿道內括約肌放鬆，進而進行排尿；相反的，當副交感神經活動變低，膀胱收縮減少，逼尿肌放鬆的時候可讓膀胱儲存尿液，尿道內括約肌收縮，讓尿液停止排出。
而骨盆交感神經是由交感神經纖維組成，其作用是抑制膀胱收縮、尿道括約肌收縮，以利儲尿。
The pelvic visceral nerves are a network of nerves that innervate multiple organs within the pelvis, including the urinary, reproductive, and digestive systems. These nerves provide sensory and motor innervation to pelvic visceral organs (such as the bladder, uterus, and rectum). They play a role in controlling the movement, urination, defecation, and reproduction of these organs.
The pelvic visceral nerves are composed of parasympathetic nerve fibers. The urination mechanism is activated by the parasympathetic nervous system, which stimulates the pelvic visceral nerves, causing the bladder detrusor muscle (a smooth muscle) to contract and the internal urethral sphincter to relax. This allows urine to be expelled from the bladder. Conversely, when parasympathetic nervous activity is reduced, the bladder contracts less and the detrusor muscle relaxes, allowing the bladder to store urine. The internal urethral sphincter contracts, preventing urine from being expelled.
The pelvic sympathetic nerves are composed of sympathetic nerve fibers. Their function is to inhibit bladder contraction and urethral sphincter contraction, which helps to store urine.
骨盆內臟神經和陰部神經的排尿機轉的差異
The difference in urinary mechanisms between the pelvic visceral nerve and the pudendal nerve is as follows:
陰部神經在排尿過程中主要為尿道內括約肌的舒張。當陰部神經受到刺激時，尿道內括約肌會舒張，允許尿液流出；而骨盆內臟神經則調節迫尿肌的收縮，使尿液進入尿道，同時也參與控制尿道內括約肌的舒張。
During the process of urination, the pudendal nerve primarily controls the relaxation of the internal urethral sphincter. When stimulated, the pudendal nerve causes the relaxation of the internal urethral sphincter, allowing urine to flow out. On the other hand, the pelvic visceral nerve regulates the contraction of the detrusor muscle, facilitating the movement of urine into the urethra. Additionally, the pelvic visceral nerve also participates in controlling the relaxation of the urethral sphincter.
腸骨盆神經（Hypogastric Nerve）
腸骨盆神經是骨盆內臟神經中的一部分，負責傳遞來自腸道和膀胱等器官的感覺信息。它的分支延伸至骨盆內多個器官，參與調節消化、排尿和性功能等。
The intestinal pelvic nerve is a part of the pelvic visceral nerve, responsible for transmitting sensory information from organs such as the intestines and bladder. Its branches extend to various organs within the pelvic region, participating in the regulation of digestion, urination, and sexual function.
陰部神經（Pudendal Nerve）
陰部神經是骨盆內臟神經的一部分，它負責傳遞來自陰部區域的感覺和運動信息。這些神經參與控制陰部的感覺、生殖器官的運動以及排尿和排便時的肌肉收縮等。
在排尿過程中，陰部神經參與調節尿道括約肌的運動，協助控制尿液的流動。當適當的尿意感覺到來時，陰部神經會傳遞相應的指令，促使尿道括約肌鬆弛，從而讓尿液排出。另外迫尿肌的收縮為骨盆內臟神經控制，且骨盆內臟神經同時也參與控制尿道內括約肌的舒張。
The pudendal nerve, a component of the pelvic visceral nerve, is responsible for transmitting sensory and motor information from the perineal region. These nerves are involved in controlling sensations in the perineum, movement of the reproductive organs, as well as muscle contractions during urination and defecation.
During the process of urination, the pudendal nerve plays a role in regulating the movement of the urethral sphincter muscles, assisting in controlling the flow of urine. When appropriate signals of urination are sensed, the pudendal nerve conveys corresponding instructions to relax the urethral sphincter muscles, allowing the release of urine. Additionally, the contraction of the detrusor muscle is controlled by the pelvic visceral nerve, which also participates in controlling the relaxation of the urethral sphincter muscles.
骨盆腔神經節（Pelvic Ganglia）
骨盆內臟神經還包括位於骨盆內的神經節，這些神經節對於調節骨盆內多個器官的功能至關重要，包括泌尿系統、生殖系統和消化系統。
The pelvic visceral nerve also includes nerve ganglia located within the pelvis. These nerve ganglia are crucial for regulating the function of various organs within the pelvic region, including the urinary, reproductive, and digestive systems.
腎上腺髓質神經（Adrenal Medullary Nerves）
這些神經纖維來自骨盆內臟神經，連接到腎上腺髓質，參與調節腎上腺的功能，影響體內的應激反應和代謝。
These nerve fibers, originating from the pelvic visceral nerve, connect to the adrenal medulla, participating in the regulation of adrenal function and influencing stress responses and metabolism within the body.
十對腦神經
嗅神經（Olfactory nerve）：負責嗅覺。
視神經（Optic nerve）：負責視覺。
動眼神經Oculomotor Nerve
負責調節眼球晶狀體曲度及上直肌、下直肌、下斜肌和內直肌之作動。
Responsible for regulating the curvature of the eye's lens and the functioning of the superior rectus, inferior rectus, inferior oblique, and medial rectus muscles.
滑車神經（Trochlear nerve）：負責眼球外旋。
三叉神經 Trigeminal nerve
若此腦神經受損會出現咀嚼困難、臉頰尚失觸覺等症狀，拔牙的時候醫師進行局部麻醉也是主要阻斷三叉神經的傳導來減少疼痛。
If this cranial nerve is damaged, symptoms such as difficulty in chewing and diminished sensation in the cheeks may occur. During tooth extraction, the dentist also primarily blocks the conduction of the trigeminal nerve through local anesthesia to reduce pain.
外展神經（Abducens nerve）：負責眼球外展。
顏面神經（Facial nerve）：負責面部表情、聽覺和味覺。
聽神經（Vestibulocochlear nerve）：負責聽覺和平衡。
舌咽神經Hypoglossal nerve
傳送頸動脈竇受器所感受血壓改變的訊息
Transmitting signals of blood pressure changes sensed by carotid sinus receptors.
舌乳頭taste bud
絲狀乳頭平行分布於舌前2/3，數量最多，無味蕾。
輪廓狀乳頭分布於舌後半部且含有味蕾。
蕈狀乳突 ( fungiform papillae )，以肉眼觀察活體之舌頭時成紅色小點狀，稀鬆散佈於絲狀乳頭之間且分布於舌後半部，且含有味蕾。
味覺可以通過3種不同的頭部神經到達大腦： 舌頭前三分之二的面神經 舌頭後三分之一的舌咽神經 會厭中局部區域中的迷走神經
Filiform papillae are distributed in a parallel pattern on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue, with the highest quantity, but they do not contain taste buds.
Fungiform papillae, when observed with the naked eye on the living tongue, appear as red dot-like structures. They are sparsely scattered among the filiform papillae and are mainly distributed on the posterior half of the tongue. Fungiform papillae do contain taste buds.
Taste perception can reach the brain through three different cranial nerves: the facial nerve for the anterior two-thirds of the tongue, the glossopharyngeal nerve for the posterior one-third of the tongue, and the vagus nerve in localized regions of the epiglottis.
迷走神經（Vagus nerve）
迷走神經是第十對腦神經，也人體最長的腦神經，從腦幹出發，經過頸部、胸腔和腹部，支配許多器官，包括肝臟、胃、胰腺、小腸和大腸。
The vagus nerve is the tenth pair of cranial nerves and is also the longest cranial nerve in the human body. It originates from the brainstem and travels through the neck, chest, and abdomen, innervating many organs, including the liver, stomach, pancreas, small intestine, and large intestine.
直接刺激：迷走神經直接支配肝臟，可以刺激肝臟分泌膽汁。
Direct stimulation: The vagus nerve directly innervates the liver and can stimulate the liver to secrete bile.
間接刺激：迷走神經可以刺激胃和小腸分泌胃酸和腸促胰液素，而胃酸和腸促胰液素可以刺激膽囊收縮，促進膽汁分泌。
Indirect stimulation: The vagus nerve can stimulate the stomach and small intestine to secrete gastric acid and cholecystokinin (CCK), respectively. Gastric acid and CCK can stimulate gallbladder contraction, promoting bile secretion.
膽汁是由肝臟分泌的一種液體，儲存在膽囊中。膽汁有助於消化脂肪。
Bile is a fluid produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Bile helps to digest fats.
腸道神經系統（enteric nervous system）
黏膜下神經叢（submucosa plexus）
黏膜下神經叢是腸道神經系統的一部分，它位於腸壁的黏膜下層。黏膜下神經叢主要負責控制腸道蠕動和分泌功能。
The submucosal plexus is a part of the enteric nervous system, located in the submucosal layer of the intestinal wall. The submucosal plexus is primarily responsible for controlling intestinal motility and secretory functions.
直腸下神經（Inferior Rectal Nerve）
直腸下神經是骨盆區域的一支分支神經，負責提供感覺和運動功能到肛門和周圍組織。該神經參與控制肛門的運動和感覺，包括排便過程。
The inferior rectal nerve is a branch nerve in the pelvic region responsible for providing sensory and motor functions to the anus and surrounding tissues. This nerve is involved in controlling the movement and sensation of the anus, including the process of defecation.
鈉鉀幫浦sodium-potassium pump
運送鈉鉀離子的作用方式屬於主動運輸（active transport），其動作電位過極化為鈉離子難以通過細胞膜，而鉀離子流出細胞外。
The process of transporting sodium and potassium ions is classified as active transport. Its mechanism involves a change in membrane potential that makes it difficult for sodium ions to pass through the cell membrane, while potassium ions flow out of the cell.
簡單擴散 Simple Diffusion
物質從高濃度區移動到低濃度區的淨遷移，該過程不需要載體蛋白參與，物質可直接穿過細胞膜。描述兩個區域之間的濃度差別常有一個術語叫做「濃度梯度」，擴散將會一直進行，直到該梯度消失時才停止。因為擴散作用是將物質從高濃度區轉向低濃度，因此它也被稱為「順濃度梯度」。（與主動運輸相不同的是，後者將物質從低濃度區轉向高濃度因此它也被稱為「逆濃度梯度」。）通常情況下，小分子物質（如氧氣）和脂溶性較強的物質（如脂肪）通常以此方式進出細胞，而帶電的離子、非脂溶性的大分子（如多醣）等則難以以此方式進出細胞。
Simple diffusion refers to the net movement of substances from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. This process does not require carrier proteins and allows substances to directly pass through the cell membrane. The term "concentration gradient" is often used to describe the difference in concentration between two regions. Diffusion continues until the gradient is eliminated. It is called "down the concentration gradient" as it moves from high concentration to low concentration. (In contrast, active transport moves substances against the concentration gradient, so it is called "against the concentration gradient.") Small molecules such as oxygen and lipid-soluble substances like fats typically move in and out of cells through simple diffusion, while charged ions and non-lipid-soluble large molecules like polysaccharides have difficulty using this method.
滲透 Osmosis
滲透是一種水分子穿過選擇性可滲透膜的擴散，是水分子穿過部分滲透膜從高水勢向低水勢的淨遷移。具有較少負水勢的細胞會吸入水分子，但這也取決於其他因素例如溶質勢（細胞壓力，例如溶質分子）以及壓力勢（外界壓力，例如細胞壁）。
Osmosis is a type of diffusion involving the movement of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane. It occurs when water molecules move from an area of higher water potential (lower solute concentration) to an area of lower water potential (higher solute concentration). Cells with lower osmotic potential tend to absorb water molecules, but this also depends on factors such as solute potential (cell pressure, such as solute molecules) and pressure potential (external pressure, such as cell walls).
胞噬作用 Phagocytosis
吞噬作用（英語：phagocytosis，來自古希臘語φαγεῖν）亦稱吞食、噬菌作用，是吞噬細胞和原生動物通過細胞膜從周圍環境攝取固體顆粒，並在其內部形成吞噬體的過程。
Phagocytosis, also known as engulfment or phagocytic ingestion, is the process by which phagocytic cells and certain protists engulf solid particles from their surroundings through the cell membrane, forming phagosomes within the cell.
神經傳導物質Neurotransmitters
神經元（neuron）
神經元是神經系統的基本單位，負責傳遞神經訊息。神經元具有細長的纖維狀突起，包括根突（dendrites）和軸突（axon）。根突用於接收其他神經元傳來的訊息，軸突則將訊息傳遞給其他神經元或目標組織。神經元的細胞體包含細胞核和其他細胞器，並與其他神經元進行複雜的連接。
Neurons are the basic units of the nervous system responsible for transmitting nerve signals. Neurons have elongated fiber-like processes, including dendrites and axons. Dendrites receive signals from other neurons, while axons transmit signals to other neurons or target tissues. Neurons contain a cell body with a nucleus and other organelles and form complex connections with other neurons.
傳導相鄰細胞間神經訊息的電性突觸是裂隙結合（gap junction）
裂隙結合（gap junction）並非神經元的一種，而是細胞之間的一種特殊連接結構。
神經元與裂隙結合的關係
神經元： 神經元是神經系統的基本單位，負責接收、處理和傳遞信息。它們具有獨特的形態結構，包括細胞體、軸突和樹突。
裂隙結合： 裂隙結合是一種細胞間連接，它允許相鄰細胞的細胞質直接連通，從而實現離子和小分子物質的快速傳遞。這種連接結構在許多不同類型的細胞中都存在，包括神經元、心肌細胞、平滑肌細胞等。
反射弧（reflex arc）
反射動作的反射弧（reflex arc）由感受器接受刺激並將其轉化為電信號的神經元，接著傳入中樞神經系統的神經元，由中樞神經系統處理信號，傳遞到效應器的運動神經元（motor neuron），接受到信號做出反應，所以最終端構造為動器（effector），例肌肉或腺體。
The reflex arc of a reflex action is composed of neurons that receive stimuli and convert them into electrical signals, then neurons that transmit them to the central nervous system, the central nervous system processes the signals, and transmits them to the motor neurons of the effectors, which receive the signals and respond, so the final structure is the effector, such as muscles or glands.
一氧化氮 Nitric Oxide
一氧化氮並非儲存於突觸的囊胞中。相反地，一氧化氮一旦被形成之後，會很快地自神經元釋出，再迅速擴散進入另一個細胞，可活化特定酵素，啟動特定反應。
Nitric oxide is not stored in synaptic vesicles. Instead, once it is produced, it is rapidly released from neurons and diffuses into another cell, where it can activate specific enzymes and trigger specific reactions.
麩胺酸 Glutamate
麩胺酸（glutamate）生成後儲存於突觸囊泡，是中樞神經系統中含量最豐富的興奮性神經傳導物質
Glutamate, after its synthesis, is stored in synaptic vesicles and is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.
正腎上腺素 Norepinephrine
生成後儲存於突觸囊泡 ，一種激素和神經遞質，參與調節心臟收縮、血管收縮、呼吸和應激反應等。
Norepinephrine is stored in synaptic vesicles after its generation. It is a hormone and neurotransmitter that participates in regulating heart rate, vasoconstriction, respiration, and stress responses.
Serotonin（血清素）
一種神經遞質，參與調節情緒、睡眠、食慾等生理功能，並影響中樞神經系統的活動。
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and other physiological functions, and it affects the activity of the central nervous system.
乙醯膽鹼(Acetylcholine)
生成後儲存於突觸囊泡，為迷走神經末梢分泌，可使心跳速率減慢，原因為促使心臟節律性細胞增加對鉀離子的通透性。也是一種神經遞質，在神經肌肉接頭（神經肌肉聯接處）傳遞神經信號，對於肌肉收縮至關重要，重症肌無力（Myasthenia Gravis）與acetylcholine（乙醯膽鹼）之異常最相關。
Acetylcholine, generated and stored in synaptic vesicles, is secreted by the terminals of the vagus nerve, slowing down heart rate by increasing the permeability of heart rhythm cells to potassium ions. It is also a neurotransmitter that transmits nerve signals at neuromuscular junctions (nerve-muscle junctions), playing a crucial role in muscle contraction. Acetylcholine abnormalities are highly associated with conditions like myasthenia gravis.
Histamine（組織胺）
一種生物胺，參與調節免疫反應、血管擴張和胃酸分泌等過程。
Histamine is a biogenic amine that participates in regulating immune responses, vasodilation, and gastric acid secretion.
內側蹄系Inner Hoof Sensory
主要是精細觸覺與本體感覺
Primarily responsible for fine touch and proprioception.
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